SEISMICITY, NEOTECTONICS, AND RECENT DYNAMICS
with special redard to the Territory of Czech Republic
250 66 Zdiby 98, tel. 02/685 7375, fax: 02/685 7056, e-mail: odis@vugtk.cz
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| SEISMICITY, NEOTECTONICS, AND RECENT DYNAMICS |
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| VYSKOČIL, Pavel | |
RECENT CRUSTAL MOVEMENTS, THEIR PROPERTIES AND RESULTS OF STUDIES AT THE TERRITORY OF CZECH REPUBLIC | |
In: SEISMICITY, NEOTECTONICS, AND RECENT DYNAMICS with special redard to the Territory of Czech Republic. |
The application of repeated geodetic measurements by geodynamical studies has one peculiarity. The recent movements are detected through the temporal deformations of geodetic networks. This information in combination with other geophysical data on deep structure of the Earth's crust etc., is the main tool for definition of geodynamical model of the area (region) under study. Finally, such a model will be used not only for applications in global changes etc., but also for prediction of further temporal deformations of geodetic networks. It should be considered as one of the main goal of present studies for practical applications in geodesy, i.e. the actual time dependent definition of position of point at the crustal surface in the real gravity field. The worldwide applications of geodetic space technique affect a little bit this approach, but the essential idea on the role of geodynamical models does not lose its importance.
In following contribution the general view on the development in geodynamical studies, i.e. the interconnection between the geodetic and geophysical information will be presented. The pure geological approach is given in the other contribution of this proceedings. In addition, the overview on procedures and data processing as well as main results achieved at the territory of the Czech Republic mainly by means of terrestrial methods will be presented. These results should be considered as a first estimation of geodynamical properties of the territory of Czech Republic and adjacent areas. It brings the general view on geodynamics in Central Europe and can help by further planning of recent crustal movement studies by means of advanced technique as GPS (Global Positioning System) etc.
The initial research has been done by geoloGISts during the last century, and was based for instance on analyses of the present position above sea level of oceanic sedimentary layers. This approach, and first results suggested ideas on periodical uplifting and subsidences, i.e. on the predominant role of vertical movements. Due to the lack of proper technique and methods, the structure beneath the Earth's surface was unknown. WEGENER (1915) expressed his theory on the horizontal movements of continents, but as the basis for geodynamical studies was fully accepted after the Second World War. Nevertheless, it should be stressed that at the 3rd General Assembly of the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (IUGG), held in Praha (Czechoslovakia) in 1927, the Resolution on monitoring the continents' movements by means of repeated astronomical observations was approved.
The difference in approach to geodynamical studies was affected especially by the increase of information on subsurface structure, achieved by means of application of geophysical methods. Information on the Earth's interior was extended by analyses of distribution of natural seismic waves through the Earth's body, by gravity analyses as well as by other geophysical methods as geomagnetism, geoelectrics, heat flow, deep seismic sounding etc. During this process of research, the different layers of the Earth, characterized by different density were determined. The crust as a upper part of lithosphere has the average density 3 g/cm3. The lithosphere is composed by a part of upper mantle of density 4.3 g/cm3, which continues to the asthenosphere with the lower mantle (5.5 g/cm3) at the bottom. Strong density change, known as the Gutenberg discontinuity is the beginning of the upper core (density 10-12.3 g/cm3) as the layer of liquid metals. The lower, rigid core is characterized by the average density of about 13.5 g/cm3. The distribution of earthquakes' epicentres along the important zones of the globe was the basic information on the boundaries of so called tectonic plates. Reviewing the Wegener's assumptions, the theory of Plate Tectonics was defined and during its application in geodynamics modified (for instance LE PICHON, 1968; EGYEN, 1969; ARTJUŠKOV, 1979; BOTT, 1971; CONDIE, 1989; MAGNICKIJ, 1965; SCHEIDEGGER, 1982; STACEY, 1972; ŠKVOR and ZEMAN, 1976). In order to study the properties of the Earth, the International and Interdisciplinary projects were prepared for 1960-1970 (Upper Mantle Project), 1970-1980 (The Project of Geodynamics) and since 1980 the Project of Lithosphere.
Step by step the geodetical methods for determination of movements at the Earth's surface were introduced. One of the first impulse was the disastrous earthquake occurred in San Francisco 1906 (REPORTS, 1973) as well as the earthquake in Japan 1923 (RIKITAKE, 1976). At the beginning of sixtieths (1961) the special Commission on Recent Crustal Movements (CRCM) was established within the International Association of Geodesy (IAG). This Commission is responsible for recent crustal movement studies by means of geodetic methods, and their analyses in combination with other information on the properties of the crust, determined by means of geophysical methods. The progress in this field can be followed at results, published in Proceedings of different CRCM symposia (PROCEEDINGS, 1962, 1966, 1969, 1975 a, 1975 b, 1979, 1988, 1981, 1983, 1986 a, 1986 b, 1987 a, 1987 b, 1987 c, 1991, 1994).
In general, the geodetic methods in kind of repeated determination of position or elevation serve as the source of information on movements at the Earth's surface. In order to study the movements of the crust, the information of its structure must be taken into account. The results of geodetic repeated measurements (defined for instance as annual velocities of movement in mm/year) bring the dynamical information at the upper boundary of the crust. Unfortunately, the most of geophysical methods bring the statical information on the properties of the crust. It means that in present stage of our knowledge by the interdisciplinary analyses we combine the numerical data of the surface dynamics with other data on the structure (but not dynamics!) within the Earth's crust. In following paragraphs a brief overview on the different geophysical information and their relation to the surface dynamics will be presented.
Both components can be separated, and information on anomalous gravity field is the main data on distribution of inhomogeneities in the mass density etc. This part of the gravity field is illustrated by the maps of free-air anomalies, isostatic anomalies, and especially Bouguer anomalies. The information in these maps depends on initial assumptions (Bouguer anomalies) as changes of density according to depth, topographic reductions etc. The information on the anomalous gravity field in presented form informs us on the position of the anomalous masses beneath the Earth's surface. Considering the data on surface movements we can assume the possible movements of subsurface bodies, defined by anomalous masses, and estimate their effect on the surface dynamics, but nothing more. Nevertheless, by geodetic measurements, the information on real gravity field should be taken into account, as for instance the gravity corrections in levelling etc. Assuming not changeable gravity field, these corrections in repeated measurements can be neglected. In general, the information on distribution of subsurface anomalous masses is used in applied gravimetry by prospection.
Obviously, the time variations of the gravity field exist. The periodical variations, known as the Earth's tides occur due to the attractional forces of the Sun and Moon. Manifestation of these effects is reGIStered as periodical changes of the gravity as well as in kind of tidal waves at oceans and the solid surface of continents. The tides at the oceans are detectable with the naked eye, but at solid surface are usually computed only. With respect to their long wave length, their existence does not affect the life at continents. It should be add that some investigators suppose the pass of tidal waves as possible impulse for initiation of an earthquake.
The tidal variations are measured continuously by the world system of permanent or temporal stations, occupied by gravimeters (the vertical component of tidal waves) and by tiltmeters (horizontal component). Analyses of variations in both components lead to determination of elastic parameters of the Earth's crust, necessary for determination of continental tidal surface waves parameters etc. These variations affect obviously also the gravity measurements, and by present increase of accuracy, the corresponding correction should be taken into account. As will be shown later, the tidal variations of the gravity field affect the geodetic measurements as well.
With respect to crustal movement studies, the secular variations of the gravity field are very important. These changes are originated by slow movement of subsurface masses and can be detected by precise absolute or relative gravimeters. That is also reason, why the dense information on this phenomenon at broad territory are lacking till now. Nevertheless, by increase of amount of these data, the dynamical properties of the surface will be analyzed in combination with dynamical subsurface information. The effect of secular gravity variation in levelling are discussed for instance by HECK and MÄLZER (1983) etc.
The anomalous part of magnetic field depends on the intensity of magnetisation of different subsurface rocks, i.e. on their quality (or capability to be magnetized). This information can be applied in combination with surface movements, but also as a static phenomenon only. In addition to scientific applications by geodynamical studies, the above mentioned data are used by prospection (BUCHA, 1981b).
In addition to the systematic temporal changes of the regular magnetic field, the irregular changes are detected. The origin of regular changes is given by the systematic movement of magnetic poles (annually of about 10 m). The irregular changes are initiated by anomalies in the magnetic field of the Sun (magnetic storms etc.), and as meteorological factors are related to the properties of atmosphere, including effects on human life and estimation of weather forecast (BUCHA, 1981c). These irregularities varied daily and can not be used for research of crustal structure, but they can disturb the specialized magnetic observations.
Other type of magnetic changes is initiated by changes in stress-strain field of a subsurface body, or its part. This phenomenon can be detected by special instrumentation but by its extracting the irregular disturbances must be removed from final data. This method is very promising by studies of subsurface dynamical qualities, related also to earthquake precursors etc. On the other hand the measurements related are very sensitive to disturbances due to electric current lines (wires, cables etc.). With respect to increase of density of such lines, to find out a proper place for magnetic measurements is rather difficult.
The main source for determination of position of these faults and discontinuities are the results of seismic sounding. The method is based on initiation of natural earthquakes (explosions) and reGIStration of the seismic waves propagation at different distances, after their reflection on the fault surface. By this method, as deep seismic sounding, the shape of Moho is determined as well (BERÁNEK and ZÁTOPEK 1981, MAYEROVÁ et al. 1994). Except the case of an earthquake, this information is static, and only in combination with data on surface movements we can assume some of fault zone as dynamically active.
As very important information on more or less dynamical properties of the crust are the results of so called "in-situ" measurements. By the special procedures, the principal axes of underground stress-strain are determined at rocks' patterns, taken from different depths, usually from drilling holes. Together with focal mechanism analyses, the results of in-situ measurements should be considered as important information on geodynamical processes (accumulation of stresses) within the crust. Combination of these results with the similar data on surface deformations determined by means of geodetic methods brings very valuable dynamical information of local or regional importance (for instance GRÜNTHAL and STROMEYER 1986).
The tectonic plates are bordered either by fault zones with lateral shift or by collision of both plates, usually characterized by subduction of one plate beneath the other, or by spreading at their margin. The type of these margins is not uniform along their whole extension and depend on orientation of plate movement, its rotation etc. Nevertheless, in general, according to the type of contact, the stress or strain accumulation occure there, which could initiate the creation of mountain belts (in long time scale), accompanied by seismic or volcanic activity (in short time scale). Therefore, one of indicator of plate margins position is the temporal accumulation of earthquake epicentres. In the areas of decrease of crustal thickness, the earthquake activity is accompanied also by the volcanic activity. The detail discussion of these phenomena can be found in BOTT (1971), CONDIE (1989), EGYEN (1969), LE PICHON (1968), STACEY (1972), ŠVOR and ZEMAN (1976) etc.
A part of stress and strain, accumulated at plate margins is released by earthquakes or by "slow" deformations of the crust. These deformations are distributed within the plate and are responsible for interplate recent crustal movements and deformations. The accumulation of the interplate stress deformations at some fault can initiate interplate earthquake by their immediate release, or can affect the slow tectonic movements of regional or local importance. These movements and deformations are also the main object of tectonic recent crustal movement studies, especially by means of geodetic methods.
Some possible causes of earthquakes are discussed in the other part of this proceedings. It should be mentioned here that an earthquake, as the consequence of release of stress, accumulated at a fault zone should be accompanied in the stage of its preparation by deformations in the crust and at its surface. These deformations can be monitored by geomagnetic and geoelectric measurements, but also by application of repeated geodetic methods. In addition to the monitoring of small seismic events and their frequency by means of seismic methods (seismic arrays etc.), the monitoring of crustal and surface deformations is the necessary tool for estimation of the time of an earthquake. Pure seismological information are only a part of whole set of data necessary for understanding of stages of preparation of an earthquake.
In general, the experimental studies of possible earthquake precursors were performed more or less successfully. For instance, by the disastrous earthquake occurred in Kobe, Japan, on January 4, 1995, no precursors were monitored (NAKAGAWA, 1995). One of the reasons for such a negative result could be the not proper distribution or frequency of different observations. Moreover, the possible "melting" of accumulated stress, due to a number of small seismic events, can diminish the supposed intensity of stronger shock. Data on stress and surface deformation patterns, and their temporal changes can probably lead to true information on actual situation in epicentral area.
In addition, by application the terrestrial geodetic methods, the results, i.e. movements are separated into vertical and horizontal components. Obviously, real tectonic movements act in the space, and the main reason for this differentiation is the fact that the different methods for determination of both components were used. As a further consequence is usually not identical location of points (benchmarks), characterized by vertical or horizontal component of movement respectively. This disadvantage does not exist by application of repeated measurements by means of advanced space technique, used by us since 1990. Nevertheless, in the present contribution the results achieved by means of terrestrial geodetic methods will be discussed.
The basis for studies of vertical movements in the VÚGTK at our territory were the results of repeated levellings. From historical view, five levellings were carried out at the territory under study. They are as follows:
The levellings ad a), b) and c) were used for the first estimation of vertical movements at our territory by KRUIS (1959) and later by VYSKOČIL (1966b, 1968, 1969a, 1970b). The accuracy of the levelling a) was very low, and its use was limited. The quality of levelling b), aimed at densification of network a) for technical application by industrial improvements of Czechoslovakia after 1918 did not satisfy the requirements on accuracy as well. The first, systematically planned and performed measurement was the levelling c). The experience achieved by analyses of mentioned levellings for studies of vertical movements resulted in Technology for measurements and data processing prepared by KRUIS (1970). New types of levelling benchmarks were proposed there, and introduced into the network of levelling c), used as a main part for levelling d). This levelling was a test for Technology, but by the measurement was covered a large part of the entire territory. These first tests were also the basis for further systematic research of vertical movements in VÚGTK. It should be stressed that extension of research in vertical component of movements was given by more open statute of levelling data. The height differences and their temporal changes (without gravity corrections) were considered as confidential only, and the management of data and their exchange was more easy.
Contrary to the vertical component of movements, determination and studies of horizontal component were more difficult. The data of higher order of triangulation, and later also trilateration were covered by the Military Topographic Service as secret. It was the reason, why the studies of horizontal movements at broader territory were very limited. The following results of First order horizontal measurements were available:
After the Second World War, the results of triangulation a) and b), and after 1960 also c), as angles or bearings, were combined at each station with no respect to the time of measurement. Such a way the results of different measurements were deformed, especially, by introduction of results of the measurement c). The other deformation was produced by different scales, especially after introduction of results of distance measurements within c). Due to these reasons, the results of above given combination of triangulations were not capable for direct estimation of horizontal movements.
At the beginning of horizontal movement studies, the interest was focused mainly on local networks. The first local measurement in horizontal plane (triangulation/trilateration) was carried out at the test area of Lišov in 1972, and then also at some localities on the contact zone between Bohemian Massif and Western Carpathians (territory of Moravia). The processing of results of repeated horizontal measurements is more difficult than in the case of vertical component, and needs good hardware and software background. With respect to the general development of computing technique in our republic during past decades, the procedures of measurements, monumentation of stations and data processing were developed step by step simultaneously. The experience achieved, was summarized in PROCEDURES (1984, 1989), aimed especially at needs of geodetically not educated specialists mainly from developing countries.
Finally, approx. in 1980, the results of separate triangulation measurements were processed (separately for the triangulation a) and b)) as a single unit, homogenous in technology and time. The results of such a processing was used for first estimation of the origin and distribution of horizontal movements within the Bohemian Massif (VYSKOČIL, 1985a, 1987a, 1988c, 1988d, 1991a, 1993b, 1994). This work is similar to the estimation of horizontal movements at the territory Saxony (THURM and BANKWITZ, 1977), of Finland (CHEN, 1991) or in Greece (STIROS, 1993). Nevertheless, all these studies are the initial estimate for further research, based on the results of repeated measurements by means of space technique.
In order to improve the quality of results used for crustal movement studies of vertical component, the systematic research of outer effects at instruments, sight beam and rods as well as of stability of benchmarks was performed. By this research, the temperature sensibility of bubble level instruments was determined, especially by the precise levelling instrument Zeiss Ni 004. The available instruments with compensators were practically free of the temperature effect (VYSKOČIL, P. 1960, 1967a, 1983a). After theoretical and practical studies, the tidal effect at levelling, after removal of constant part of corresponding equation in South-North direction, is considered as random (VYSKOČIL, P., 1970c) in both South-North and West-East directions. Nevertheless, the long periodical changes of the Moon's declination could affect the results of levellings, repeated by occurrence of both extremes of their values. The total influence of such an unfavourable combination at differences of repeated levellings was not analysed.
As concerns the outer effects at sight beam, the detail investigations of levelling refraction, due to distribution of temperatures, and/or temperature gradients in microclimate above Earth's surface were carried out and summarized by VYSKOČIL, P. (1966a, 1967b, 1983a, b). The maximum of temperature gradients (and levelling refraction) occur at noon. Consequently the average error of levelling refraction reaches its maximum in the same period of day. At our territory (as well as Central Europe) was determined in the value of 3x10-5.S2 mm/1m, where S is an average length of sight beam in metres. The similar results were achieved in Denmark (REMMER, O. 1982). After the similar studies in desert around Aswan Lake (Egypt), the values of about ten times greater were determined (VYSKOČIL, P. et al. 1990).
The research was aimed also at the effect of solar heating on levelling rods. Contrary to temperature gradients above the Earth's surface, the heating of the surface of the vertical levelling rods reaches the maximum at sunrise or sunset, and minimum at noon. (VYSKOČIL, P. 1983a). Nevertheless, especially by the rods with wooden cover, the temperature is not the main effect. With respect to the variations of humidity of wooden cover of the rods during year as well as the changes in the strain of springs, the final combined effect of the temperature and humidity should be reflected in the strain of rod's springs. To determine the actual strain of the invar tape is only one way to eliminate the error of the rod's scale.
Main effort was focused on the research of stability of levelling benchmarks to be used for crustal movement studies. The special groups of benchmarks were used for permanent observations of possible temporal variation of different types of levelling benchmarks (VYSKOČIL, P. 1970a). After some years lasting research in Southern Bohemia and later in Southern Moravia as well, temporal variations of soil humidity (affected by rain falls, evaporation, vegetation) were revealed as a source of temporal variation of benchmarks. In addition to the soil humidity, the variations of benchmarks depend on quality of the soil. In clay soil, the variations can reach the value of about 1-2 cm. In sandy soil the variations are negligible. In general, by the temporal (annual) variations there are affected the "shallow" benchmarks with the bottom at the depth of about 1-1.5 m. The maximal uplift is reached in April/May, the subsidence in November. In addition to the annual variations, the periods of 300 days (?) as well as 11 years were determined by means of spectral analysis of the long term set of observations (VYSKOČIL, P., 1984). These periods can coincide with the long terms changes of meteorological factors. The benchmarks founded at the depth of 3 m or more, are practically free of the effect of temporal nontectonical variations. Contrary to statements, rewritten sometimes from textbook to textbook, no effect of solar heating at the Earth's surface was recorded, even in extremal conditions of Nubian desert at Aswan (Egypt), as presented by VYSKOČIL, P. (1991c).
The studies of horizontal component of recent movements were started of about more than 10 years later than of the vertical component. With respect to the lack of time and personnel, the special investigations of instruments and environment were not performed in detail. In general, the procedures for measurements were based on earlier studies of the properties of theodolite Wild T3, carried out by KUČERA (1952). He also prepared the special procedures for angle measurements as well as for diminishing of the effect of horizontal refraction. Some of these results were applied by measurements aimed at determination of horizontal movements. As concerns the Electro-optical Distancemeters (EDM), these instruments were mainly considered as a "black box" by precise measurements. The main reason of the lack of EDM detail studies could consist in electronical basis, not understandable for geodesists. It is also why the effects of heating, refraction etc. were not studied in detail. For the calibration of EDM, the half of baseline in Hvězda, originally established for calibration of invar wires, was used. Nevertheless, the analyses of real measurements shown that the accuracy obtained is better than expected, and is sufficient for further geodynamical analyses.
The special attention was paid in the VÚGTK only to studies of stability of benchmarks, used for the horizontal repeated measurements. In these connections, the properties of possible slides were studied by means of repeated distance measurements between benchmarks, situated at different slopes, and at the top. After more than 5 years measurements with frequency of 6 repetitions a year, no effect of slides in horizontal direction at usual slopes was detected. Only the effect of vertical temporal variations, similar to the levelling benchmarks can be expected at trigonometric stations, especially in unfavourable soil conditions (clay). By practical application of repeated horizontal measurements at different special areas it has been revealed that in case of existence of slope slides, no type of benchmark is free of this effect. With respect to these results, the benchmarks for monitoring movements of tectonical origin should not be situated at such slopes.
The results of terrestrial measurements are angles or distances in horizontal, or height differences in vertical direction. Into the measured data as distances are introduced corrections for outer (atmospheric) effects and reduction to horizontal plane. Corrections for rod scale and/or outer effects are introduced in measured height differences. During this data preprocessing mainly the inner, i.e. instrumental accuracy is estimated. After repetition of measurement in proper time interval, a set of preprocessed results is available for further processing and geodynamical analyses. By these procedures the application of two approaches is recommended as follows:
In general, the data processing within a network, as adjustment is an usual geodetic procedure, to adjust the original measured values to special mathematical conditions, aimed especially at diminishing of random errors in measurement. From the view of geodynamical analyses this procedure could be considered as an artificial step into original data, and should be applied carefully. As the main requirement the reduction of initial assumptions (as "fixed" points, distances, angles etc.) is considered as necessary minimum. Hence the choice of one fixed point (station) and one direction in horizontal network is preferred. In vertical (levelling) network, only one benchmark should be chosen as stable. This approach is known as the adjustment in free network. The identity of horizontal or vertical network for each repeated measurement and adjustment is requested.
The final result of adjustment of each repeated horizontal measurement are in simple case the rectangular coordinates xi, yi for epoch i. The adjustment in free network is usually combined with transformation of coordinates of actual epoch of measurement into the initial. Then, after the statistical analysis, the differences for two epochs
| dX = xi - xo , | (1) |
dY = yi - yo ,
and vector of horizontal displacement R
| R2 = dX2 + dY2, | (2) |
where xo, yo are the coordinates in initial epoch, the values of dX, dY or R can be considered as movements of point (station) under study. From practical view the values of dX, dY are sometimes reduced in annual velocities by formula
| u = dX : dT ; v = dY : dT , | (3) |
where dT is the time interval between repeated measurements, and the values of u, v are given in mm/year. By the process of adjustment and especially transformation has the importance the scale of network. The scale factor S ' is given by relation
| S' = D'i : D'o , | (4) |
where D'i is the average distance in epoch i and D'o is the average distance in initial epoch. It must be taken into account that the scale factor depends not only on geometry of the network, but also on the size of horizontal movements occurred there. Obviously, by
D'i 
D'o is S' 1 (extension),
| and by | (5) |
D'i Classifying separate distances, and their scale factor according to their directions, the orientation of
compressional or extensional axes in the network can be determined. Moreover, the determination of
deformational parameters represents a more convenient kind of expression of surface dynamics. The values
of dX, dY or R depend on the reference system of coordinates, and present displacements within the given
network. Their analyses is rather difficult, and can lead to not correct conclusions on horizontal movements
(VYSKOČIL, 1987d). Hence, the determination of parameters of deformations in kind of axes of
compressions or extensions is more convenient tool for expression of surface dynamics. These parameters
can be determined either within separate triangles of a network (VYSKOČIL, 1984, 1987d;
PROCEDURES 1989) or in rectangular grid (THURM and BANKWITZ, 1977; KOSTELECKÝ et al.
1994). As initial data the changes of distances or angles or coordinates' differences can be used.
The determination of deformation parameters is based on the assumption of homogenous continuum
under study. This assumption can be applied especially in triangles, or in special cases at supposed known
discontinuity as shear deformations (PROCEDURES, 1989). The reality of such assumption cannot be
expected by deformation analysis in grid, but its final result gives the information on the real deformation
relations within a network used. In general, the results of final analyses of these data depend mainly on
experience of scientists responsible.
As concerns the processing of repeated levelling, i.e. the vertical component, several approaches were
used. In the initial stage the simple comparison of heights (elevations) above sea level was applied (KRUIS,
1959). Heights were determined after adjustment in separate networks for each epoch of repetition, with
different configuration. Moreover, introduction of gravity corrections, based on more or less realistic
theory, was necessary, and due to secret status of gravity corrections disturbed also all process of
adjustment. In general, results of separate adjustment can be given by following formula
where Hi is the height of benchmark derived from repeated levelling, Ho
is the height determined in initial epoch. Difference dH for each benchmark is affected by not identical
configuration of adjusted networks as well as by time inhomogeneity. A reduction to common epoch does not satisfy
requirements for reliability in determination of time scale. A more correct approach is the adjustment of annual height
changes of height differences between benchmarks w, determined by following formulas
(VYSKOČIL, 1968)
where dh is the difference of height differences dHo and dHi
measured in initial epoch (time To) or i-epoch (time Ti) respectively.
The time To and Ti at each levelling line is known, and the time difference
can be determined exactly for each dh. Then the annual velocity of height change woi
is given as follows
and the condition
in levelling loop(s) is theoretically correct (under the assumption of linear trend of vertical movement within
dT). Moreover, supposing no secular changes of gravity field, especially according to available data in past
decades, the gravitational effect can be neglected. After adjustment of one network for repeated levellings,
the annual velocities Wi of single benchmark can be computed relatively to chosen
initial benchmark (reference surface as mean sea level etc.), assuming its annual velocity as
and then
for each benchmark of a network used. A set of values Wi in units mm/year is an initial information for
drawing up isolines of annual velocities of vertical movements at the territory under study. Values Wi as
well as isolines depend on initial benchmark (reference surface), and on the network used. Hence, choosing
other initial benchmark (surface) or different shape of network, other "absolute" values of Wi are
determined. Moreover, using the same initial data set (results of repeated levellings) for separate
adjustments and construction of maps of different size of an area, the shape of isolines and their values of
annual velocity are not identical at overlapping area. In such a case, only relative relations are preserved,
given for instance by profiles of deformed surface or by horizontal gradients of vertical movements in
mm/year/km. Hence also the accuracy of values Wi is not sufficient information, and the simple application
of mean square errors with respect to initial benchmark (surface) can lead to not correct interpretation. In
order to understand better the dynamics in vertical component, the transformation into the field of
horizontal gradients of vertical movements is desirable (THURM 1978, VYSKOČIL 1981, 1990,
VYSKOČIL and HELIGROVÁ 1985, 1986).
As has been mentioned above, by studies of recent movements the combination of analyses of measured
and adjusted data is valuable information. For analyses of measured data, the angles or especially distances
in horizontal plane and height differences in vertical one are available. From repeated distance
measurements as Do in initial epoch and Di in actual epoch, the differences
reduced in values of mm/km by formula
dD
D'o is S' 1 (compression).
dH = Hi - Ho , (6)
dh = dHi - dHo , (7)
dT = Ti - To (8)
woi = dh : dT (9)
woi = 0 (10)
Wo = O (11)
Wi = Wo + woi (12)
dD = Di - Do (13)
Da (aver. distance Di in km)
as input data for determination of deformation axes within triangle, or at single point (station) can be used. Whole procedure as described in detail in VYSKOČIL (1984, 1987d) or PROCEDURES (1989). By more than three repeated measurements of each distance, the time dependent change of each distance, for instance by means of linear approximation, can be determined. Its value is given in units mm/km/year, and can be used for determination of deformation parameters as well.
In vertical component the measured values of dh (eq.(7)), or w0i (eq. (9)) can be analysed usually in graphical form along separate levelling line. These graphs can be used for choice of benchmarks, proper for vertical movement studies. Moreover, these graphs can serve for determination of "measured" horizontal gradients at each levelling line indicating a possible presence of fault zone etc. The map of these gradients for territory of Carpatho-Balkan region was published for instance by JOÓ (1992).
In general, the application of both approaches by recent movement studies gives the possibility for combination and extension of results achieved. The agreement between information on movements, determined by analyses of measured and adjusted data increases the weight of final geodynamical interpretations. As a following support of analyses of surface movements and deformations is their agreement with other geophysical information on subsurface structure etc. Nevertheless, the methods of analyses by recent movement studies are continuously developed and improved, and each addition or extension is essential contribution in scientific process of understanding of recent geodynamical phenomena.
| Fig. 4.1.: | Main geological units of Czech Republic and adjacent regions (after BLÍŽKOVSKÝ et al. 1994). |
The geological situation of main part of the area under study is given in Fig. 4.1. Unfortunately, due to the political reasons, the connection of geodetic measurements towards south, i.e. Alps, could be performed after 1989, and main present results embrace mainly the territory of Czech Republic. Main geological features there are given in sketch map in the Fig. 4.2. In general, the Bohemian Massif, as the main part of the Czech Republic is the old geological unit of Central Europe. From the south and south-east is bordered by the Alpine-Carpathian orogenic belts. Their origin is related to the collision of African and Eurasian tectonic plates (for instance HORVATH and BERCKHEMER, 1982), and their pressure forces towards Bohemian Massif can be expected from the beginning of the collision until recent time (VYSKOČIL, 1988c, 1991a, 1991b, 1993a, 1993b, 1994). Contrary to the contact zone between Bohemian Massif and Carpathians (Carpathian foredeep) situated partly at the territory of Czech Republic, the contact with Alps is situated fully at the territory of Austria and Bavaria (Germany). These circumstances determine also the amount of our results on recent movements available in both areas. With respect to the geodetical methods used, the following discussion of results will be divided into the vertical and horizontal components. But in the same time we have in mind the common direction of movements in 3-D space.
| Fig. 4.2.: | Main geological division on the territory of Czech Republic. |
After the new repeated levellings between 1974-1984, the new adjustment of values w0i was performed for entire territory of former Czechoslovakia (VANKO and VYSKOČIL 1987). The annual velocities of vertical movements were determined with respect to the initial benchmark ŽELEŠICE (rocks of SE border of Bohemian Massif southern from Brno). The network at the territory of Czech Republic was densified and the map was constructed in original scale 1:200 000 with the interval of isolines 0.1 mm/year. An example of one map sheet in reduced scale is given in Fig. 4.3 (a part of NE Moravia). In very reduced scale is this map shown in Fig. 4.4. In the scale 1:1 000 000 in VYSKOČIL (1993b). It should be add that the map in original scale is used usually for detail studies at chosen localities, but for regional analyses the simplification of isolines is applied (VYSKOČIL, 1994) in Fig. 4.5. After the application of second order polynomial, the regional trends (Fig. 4.6) and their residuals (Fig. 4.7) were determined (VYSKOČIL, 1991a, 1993b). To the above given set, the map of horizontal gradients of vertical movements in grid (mm/year/km) can be add (Fig. 4.8). Except the last map, all other maps should be analysed in relative sense, as has been discussed earlier.
| Fig. 4.3.: | One sheet of the map of annual velocities of vertical movements of Czech Republic. NE part of contact zone between Bohemian Massif and Carpathians. A part of European watershed in circle. |
| Fig. 4.4.: | The original map of vertical movements at the territory of Czech Republic in very reduced scale. Initial benchmark Želešice. |
| Fig. 4.5.: | Simplified map of vertical movements at the territory of Czech Republic with geological and geographical information. Main uplifts are indicated +, subsidences -. |
| Fig. 4.6.: | Map of regional trends of vertical movements as derived from the map in Fig. 4.4. |
| Fig. 4.7.: | Map of residuals of vertical movements derived after removing of regional trend in Fig. 4.6. from the map in Fig. 4.4. Uplifts denoted by full lines, subsidences by dashed lines. By the same system there are denoted isolines in Fig. 4.9. |
| Fig. 4.8.: | Map of horizontal gradients of vertical movements derived from the map in Fig. 4.4. |
Following the simplified isolines of annual velocities of vertical movements in Fig. 4.5, the broad area of uplifts in northern, NW and SW Bohemia can be found. The core of the Bohemian Massif indicates more trends to subsidences interrupted by uplift of a part of Českomoravská Highlands and then of Jeseníky Mts., Oderské Hills and Beskydy Mts. The main part of the Carpathian Foredeep is in subsidence with exception af Ždánický les and Chřiby Hills at the south. Strong subsidences are typical for Vienna Basin. These subsidences are considered as a combination of man made activity in oil field and the tectonics of this area. In contrary in mouth of northern part of Carpathian Foredeep between Oderské Hills and Beskydy Mts. the uplifts occur there. These uplifts cross even the area of so called Moravian Gate, and represents probably the continuation of historical uplift of European watershed. The detail of this area is given in Fig. 4.3. The results presented here were supported by detail studies at the locality Blahutovice (SW from Nový Jičín), supposed formerly for establishment of nuclear power plant.
The regional trend in Fig. 4.6 indicates general uplifts in the north and NW and subsidences towards south or SE respectively. The whole sketch reflects strong uplifts in the area of neovolcanics as Doupovské hory Mts. and vicinity. The area of subsidences is determined especially by subsidences in Southern Bohemia and Southern Moravia. In the map of residuals in Fig. 4.7, the more detailed differentiation of vertical movements are detected. In addition to residual uplifts in Northern and NW Bohemia, also the uplifts at south as Šumava Mts. and Českomoravská vrchovina Highlands can be found. Some details, discussed in connection with Fig. 4.5 at the contact zone with Carpathians can be indicated here as well. In general, the map indicates the detailed block structure of vertical movements, related to different geological blocks or fault zone. As has been mentioned above, these results are used especially for detail studies within chosen localities. In present discussion the strong division of entire territory of Czech Republic into belts of relative subsidences and uplifts should be stressed. These belts follow the direction of parallels and indicate the uplifts in northern and southern parts, and subsidences in central part. Their properties will be discussed together with other geophysical phenomena.
After 1989 the map of annual velocities of vertical movements at the territory of Austria, Bavaria and Czech Republic was constructed (HÖGGERL et al., 1991), and is presented here in Fig. 4.9. In order to cover more broad territory the similar map for a part of Central Europe was prepared after joint adjustment of networks in Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Bavaria, Austria, Hungary, Slovenia, Croatia and a part of Bosnia (VYSKOČIL, 1994b). The map in Fig. 4.9 presents the smoothed isolines (regional trend), and reflects main tendencies of vertical movements at the territory under study. The strong uplift of Alps is evident especially in their western part. The vertical movements in Alpine Foredeep indicate uplifts and subsidences, as a consequence of dynamical activity of this territory. The above mentioned subsidence in a part of Vienna Basin is extended towards NE and SW, and indicates probably so called Peripieniny Lineament. This fact supports the idea of tectonical origin of the subsidences occurred there and will be compared with other geophysical phenomena later.
| Fig. 4.9.: | Map of annual velocities of vertical movements at the territory of Austria, Bavaria and Czech Republic (reduced scale). |
By the brief analysis of the map of horizontal gradients in Fig. 4.8, the differentiation in inclination of deformed surface can be revealed. Main gradients are concentrated in more active areas (as Cheb-Kraslice seismoactive zone or as Carpathian Foredeep) or at some fault zones (as Tachovský fault, a part of Podkrušnohorský fault zone, Železné hory Mts. fault, Boskovice Furrow etc.). Together with similar trends in previous maps, the mutual connection between movements (gradients) and geological structure of the territory under study is evident. Some of these phenomena will be mentioned later as well.
In order to receive a more broad information on horizontal movements in entire territory of the Czech Republic, the analyses of historical triangulations were performed (VYSKOČIL, 1988c,d, 1991a). The results of special data processing, where the strong separation of angles with respect to their epoch of measurement was kept, are characterized by average value
R = 11.94 mm/year +/- 7.38 mm/year
With respect to the given accuracy, the results of above mentioned processing can be considered as sufficient for first estimation of properties of horizontal deformations at the territory of Czech Republic. In the first stage of data analysis, the axes of deformations in triangles were determined, as shown in Fig. 4.10. After the evaluation of axes of deformations in separate triangles close to the SW border of western part of our republic, the accumulation of stress tendencies towards remote Alps was revealed. With respect to the position of border zone between Alps and Bohemian Massif at the territory of Germany (Bavaria) and Austria, these stresses represent only a part of full deformation occurred at the contact. Nevertheless, from the present results the pushing forces coming from Alps can be estimated, as indicated by arrow in Fig. 4.11 (VYSKOČIL, 1988c). Simultaneously, the possible distribution of main force within the Bohemian Massif is suggested there. After analyses of results of repeated Satellite Laser Ranging (SLR) at permanent stations in Central and Southern Europe, the compressional deformation between Alps and Bohemian Massif was determined (VYSKOČIL, 1991a, 1993b). The results are given by axes of horizontal deformation within triangles in Fig. 4.12, and represent the average (regional) compression of 0.2 mm/km/year between Alps and Bohemian Massif.
| Fig. 4.10.: | Main axes of horizontal deformations in triangles at the background of simplified map of vertical movements at the territory of Czech Republic. |
| Fig. 4.11.: | Sketch map of possible distribution of deformations at the territory of Czech Republic. |
| Fig. 4.12.: | Sketch map of some European SLR stations with axes of horizontal deformations. Station MATERA-southern Italy, GRAZ-Alps, GRASSE-Alps,WETTZELL-Bohemian Massif, POTSDAM-German Platform. |
Finally, after application of software of KOSTELECKÝ et al. (1994), the parameters of deformations in grid were determined. The set of maps with this information was published by VYSKOČIL, (1991a, 1991b, 1993b). For illustration of further discussion, the sketch of isolines of total dilatation is presented in Fig. 4.13. With respect to distance to the contact between Bohemian Massif and Alps, the expression of deformations in grid does not fully represent the compressions in SW Bohemia. On the other hand, the contact between Bohemian Massif and Carpathians is fully covered by results of repeated geodetic measurements, and the isolines there reflect especially the spreading tendencies in northern part of Vienna Basin (VYSKOČIL, 1988d). Considering the given results, we can conclude that more dense information on compressional forces we can expect along contact zone under study than inside the affected territory. Unfortunately, no similar results from the territory of Bavaria and Austria are available as yet. Nevertheless, the given above assumption can be supported by results of stress measurements, as presented according to GRÜNTAHL and STROMEYER (1986) on Fig. 4.14, where the contact area is covered by comparable geophysical measurements.
| Fig. 4.13.: | Map of isolines of total horizontal dilatation at the territory of Czech Republic. |
| Fig. 4.14.: | Sketch map of principal stress directions in Central Europe after GRÜNTHAL and STRO- MEYER (1986).1-pressure axis derived from fault plane solutions, 2-sigma-1 axis of in-situ stress measurements, 3-stress directions derived from terrestrial geodetic measurements. |
In general, with respect to low density of results available, the information on properties of horizontal movements is not in such a detail as this on vertical component of movements. This fact will affect also the discussion of final results.
The map of Moho (crustal thickness) together with basic information on heat flow at the territory of former Czechoslovakia after ČERMÁK (1994) is given in Fig. 4.15. In this Fig. we can follow the area of Moho subsidences (increase of the crustal thickness), extended along parallels in central and eastern part of the Bohemian Massif. Simultaneously, in this area the decrease of heat flow exists. The decrease of the crustal thickness, especially in western and NW part of the Bohemian Massif is accompanied by increase of heat flow. The correlation between both phenomena is determined and discussed as typical for the region of the Bohemian Massif by ČERMÁK (1994). These conclusions are in agreement with previous analyses of VYSKOČIL (1979b), where also the information on vertical movements (map 1971) was analysed. With respect to results, presented in the part 4.1, the new information can be supplemented by data, given in Fig. 4.15. In addition to the maps in Fig. 4.4 or 4.5 the map in Fig. 4.7 can be used for verification of previous published results (VYSKOČIL 1973f, 1975a, 1977a, 1979b, 1984, or VYSKOČIL and KOPECKÝ 1974). Comparing the maps of vertical movements in above mentioned Figs with the map of Moho in Fig. 4.15, we can find the coincidence of area of subsiding Moho (increase of crustal thickness) with the area of relative subsidences in vertical movements i.e. in central and eastern part of Bohemian Massif.
| Fig. 4.15.: | Sketch map of Moho depths at the territory of former Czechoslovakia with indication of heat flow at different localities (after ČERMÁK, 1994). |
The phenomenon found here can be described as follows: The subsidences of Moho (increase of crustal thickness) is accompanied by subsidences of the surface (vertical movements) and by decrease of heat flow. This statement is valid not only by application of previous map of vertical movements, but also by application of similar map, based on new results of repeated levellings, presented here. Nevertheless, this result was found as valid only for the territory of Bohemian Massif and some others platform areas (for instance VYSKOČIL 1979b). In orogeny, the correlation tends to be opposite. After the analysis of correlation between vertical movements and crustal thickness along the profiles VI and VII of DSS, presented in VYSKOČIL (1975a) the average subsidence was determined, by the coefficient of correlation r = - 0.6 as follows:
- 0.9 mm/year/10 km HM
where HM is the depth of Moho (crustal thickness).
The previous results can be tested using the new data presented here. In order to compare the properties of platform and orogenic area, the information on annual velocities of vertical movements given in Fig. 4.9 will be used, together with the sketch map of Moho approximatively at the same territory. This map (after BLÍŽKOVSKÝ et al. 1994a) is presented in Fig. 4.16 together with indication of chosen profile across Alps and Bohemian Massif. The position of this profile is approximatively identical with the position of DSS profile VII. The variations of vertical movements (Vi) and MOHO are presented in Fig. 4.17, where the approximative position of contact zone between Alps and Bohemian Massif is indicated.
| Fig. 4.16.: | Sketch map of Moho depths at a part of central Europe (after BLÍŽKOVSKÝ et al. 1994a). 1-Moho discontinuity contours derived from seismic data, 2-extrapolated contours. Cross line indicates the position of study profile in Fig. 4.17. |
| Fig. 4.17.: | Variations of crustal thickness (MOHO) and annual velocities of vertical movements (Vi) along the profile indicated in Fig. 4.16. |
The difference of variations of both values in Alps and Bohemian Massif is evident. After numerical analysis the following trends in vertical movements versus crustal thickness were determined:
The Bohemian Massif:
r = - 0.9 - 1.4 mm/year/10 km HM
The Alps
r = 0.8 0.6 mm/year/10 km HM
Obviously, the above given values were determined from data taken at the profile used, but considering the initial maps of vertical movements and Moho depth (Figs 4.9 and 4.16), the dependence between vertical movements and deep structure of the crust can be generalized for entire territory. Moreover, the results found here are in agreement with the previous, published for instance in VYSKOČIL (1975a), especially for the Bohemian Massif. On the other hand, by the present results there is characterized the difference between Alps and Bohemian Massif as well. It can be supposed that studied dependence in Alps is result of predominant effect of horizontal component of movements (pressures) occurred there as a consequence of Afro-European plates collision. In spite of a lack of more data on pressure axes in Bohemian Massif, this statement can be also supported by the data in Fig. 4.14. From this view, the horizontal component of movements and deformations in Bohemian Massif (especially at the territory of Czech Republic) probably represents the secondary effect of the Alpine pressure, as has been mentioned earlier. Finally, it should be stated that the previous results support also the first ideas of ZÁTOPEK (1980) on effect of Alpine pressure and vice versa.
The previous discussion was focused at mutual interaction between Alps and Bohemian Massif. Unfortunately, the direct contact zone of both geological units is outside the territory of the Czech Republic, where only the secondary effects can be followed. On the contrary, a part of contact zone between West Carpathians and Bohemian Massif is situated at the eastern part of the territory of Czech Republic. As has been discussed above, this area was studied relatively (in comparison with other parts of the republic) in detail and the main tendencies can be characterized by spreading and subsidences in southern part and predominant uplifts and compressions in northern part of contact zone. The presence and dynamical activity of so called Peripieniny Lineament should be stressed here as well. In general, it can be deduced the different influence of Carpathians on the Bohemian Massif represented by lateral movement towards North along the axis of contact zone, with possible residual pressure in area of Beskydy Mts. Anyway, the main pressure is supposed (again towards North) in the central part of Carpathians arc, approximatively in the area of Tatra Mts.
Summarizing all data presented here we can draw up a first, preliminary sketch of possible geodynamics in studied part of Central Europe. With respect to the existence of active Alpine-Carpathians belt, surrounding from South and SE the Bohemian Massif, a part of dynamical activity of it is supposed to be determined by pressure of mentioned belt. Its effect is different at the contact with Alps and with Carpathians, and can be expressed by the sketch, given in Fig. 4.18. The consequences of main pressure of Alps towards N-NE are supposed along the contact zone in Bavaria and Austria. The northern end of Eastern Alps moves along(?) the Peripieniny Lineament, and affects the area of spreading. Additional effect of this displacement can be also the seismicity by Wiener Neustadt etc. The junction area of Alps, Carpathians and Bohemian Massif northern from Wien seems to be very important key for understanding of mutual interaction of mentioned geological units. In addition to further detail studies along the contact zone between Alps and Bohemian Massif, the geodynamical studies should be focused also on the junction area.
| Fig. 4.18.: | Suggested mechanism of dynamics in junction among Alps, Western Carpathians and Bohemian Massif at the background of Map of vertical movements in Fig. 4.9. |
The results presented here should be considered as a first estimation of geodynamical properties of a part of Central Europe based on applications of geodetic terrestrial methods. In course of further studies, based on combination of satellite and terrestrial geodetical methods, it should be aimed at the most important zones and areas, including seismoactive localities. By these studies in more complex manner the formulation of geodynamical model of entire territory under study must be considered as final goal. Such result will contribute essentially to theory, but especially to practical applications aimed at environmental problems of Central Europe.
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